A Theory and Review of Ombuds Practices
OMBUDS: A psychological approach to Forgiveness and diffusion of High Conflict in the Workplace among Leaders and Subordinates
BY Katherine Mutchler
Forgiveness, prevention, and diffusion are the three steps that can be simply broken down in the ombuds process among employees. Through an informal process completed by an ombudsman, an organization can have improved morale, save money, and avoid possible lawsuits. A company is already enlightened by having an ombudsman, so in the application, this field is studied through a psychological approach and observations of present-day ombuds processes. This research focuses specifically on conflicts that involve employees that differ in the power rankings within an organization. This theory is further discovered through thorough research, real-world examples, and a deepened understanding of this role that is becoming more progressive in businesses and higher education. These lessons can be normalized beyond the workplace, in personal lives, and with self-reflection. Taking the complicated job of an ombudsman and placing it in this simplified model will assist leaders, employees, and companies in creating a stronger organization and a better quality of life for their staff. Ombudsmen serve as vessels that lead everyone in a team to take a moment to reflect, pause, escape destructive thoughts, and take a deep breath. When an ombudsman is dealing with disputes, high-conflict personalities, and confidentiality in a place of employment or university it can appear as a daunting task to many. Ombudsmen wear many hats; Ombuds requires the balancing of a psychological understanding, consulting, guiding, listening, and facilitating. Ombuds is a form of alternative dispute resolution that is needed to keep peace in organizations through confidentiality. The Ombudsman will never make a decision for people, however, what they do best advocates for meaningful relationships. Research is scarce in this profession because all issues are confidential, yet the proof is in the results. Ombuds are not to be confused with Human Resources, although they are similar and commonly work together. Ombuds is a role that arguably lies in between the titles alike of a mediator and an arbitrator. Ombuds should not be used to replace a formal legal process. “While current statistics on ombuds are difficult to find, Rowe (1993a) estimates that ombuds exist in at least 150 universities, 500 large corporations, and that all 50 states have a long-term care ombudsman” (Harrison 319). These numbers may seem small, but this does not diminish the power and helpfulness of such a role. Ombuds are also increasing across the world and have an important role in international conflicts. Ombuds are highly respected people in ADR professions and equalize power differences outside of litigation. Exploring this simple three-step model of forgiveness, prevention, and diffusion, while following the psychoanalysis behind each step, and factoring in the varying power dynamics will further prove the effectiveness of this theory in the profession.
Forgiveness is an attribute that is possessed by strong individuals. Forgiveness and reconciliation are not easy feelings to obtain and take plenty of practice. Parties can not have reconciliation without forgiveness, yet they can have forgiveness without reconciliation. As research develops, it is clear that not all cases are the same and they will have different solutions. No matter the degree of resolution, this practice is necessary for the ombuds process. Forgiveness does not stop at its simple definition when applied to real life; It comes with trust, acceptance, and time. Forgiveness is an emotional understanding that is not foreign to the workplace and it is false if one says that employees leave their emotions at home. Forgiveness is accepting another coworker back into one’s morals, personal dialogue, mind, and ideas after a conflict. This conflict may have hurt, it may have felt betrayed, and even been personal to a party. Forgiveness is equipped with desire, and no issue can be overcome unless all parties are ready, eager, and consenting to reconciliation. In this research, it is vital to point out that forgiveness may not be sought in every conflict, and there is nothing that policies, leaders, companies, values, or an ombudsman can do; That is OK. Through the forgiveness process, feelings and actions will be justified, the truth will be obtained, parties will make compromises, and the homeostasis of peace will be restored. Feelings of hurt no longer linger in the past after forgiveness and the parties are present and look forward to a time together after the conflict. An ombudsman knows that the influence of time is powerful on forgiveness and he or she uses it in their strategy to ease the parties to the end. Time can entail the length that an employee has worked for a company, it could include how long conflict has occurred, it could be the amount of time an employee wishes to stay with a company, and the length of time that coworkers have spent together within a company. Two employees that have worked together at the same company for over a decade and plan to retire from their positions are more likely to forgive and reconcile than two employees that have known one another briefly and plan on leaving the company very soon. Much like time, the influence of proximity is just as important in forgiveness. For parties to forgive, they have to be able to be in the same space together. Being in the same space can mean a variety of actions in terms of reconciliation; Depending on how rankings work in a company or how departments are organized, two parties could be side by side or at far lengths, whether it be physically or positionally. Upholding proximity means there is no resentment, two parties can share, communicate, and be their true selves. These employees are also kind to one another when the other party is not present. To reach forgiveness, the ombudsman encourages changed behaviors, attitudes, confessions, empathy, restitution, accountability, understanding, and compensation. At an ombuds meeting, the ombudsman could have a joint meeting with the two parties or have separate caucuses to define forgiveness and the future intentions of the relationship. Author Brandon Whittington writes in his work “An Examination of Forgiveness Attitudes, Assertiveness and Self-Esteem in Relationships between Forgiveness, Relational Abuse, and Well-Being,” the varying theories about forgiveness. Forgiveness is a highly personal feeling that lies closely with a person’s childhood, personal trauma, beliefs, circumstances, values, and religion. Something as personal as a person’s identity is taboo to discuss in the corporate workforce, so the ombuds will build a bridge. In regards to religion, Whittington published, “A recent study by Cox et al., (2012) developed an inventory that assesses motivations for workplace forgiveness and found that as forgiveness motivated by religious obligation increased workplace stress also increased.” (Whittington 122). The ombuds will celebrate the party's differences, but will also recognize everyone on a human level by knowing that forgiveness can be obtained easier than what is initially perceived. Some would argue that forgiveness is weak because compromises are involved, but theorists have studied in the workplace that it is a resilient characteristic. Being a forgiving employee allows room for empathy. Whittington refers to a theory written in the publication The Foundation for Inner Peace that breaks forgiveness down into seven parts,
One of the most prominent definitions of forgiveness is that developed by The
Foundation for Inner Peace (1975), Jampolsky (1999), and Friedman (2000) who
defined forgiveness as a shift in seven components: (1) perception and vision,
(2) belief and attitudes, (3) affect, (4) self-empowerment and responsibility, (5)
choice, decision, and intention, (6) from duality consciousness to oneness
consciousness, and (7) recognition of the core qualities of the person.
(Whittington 20).
Essentially, these seven components require that a person stretches, breaks out of routine thought, and prioritizes a bigger picture. Perception and vision are the ability to see the conflict from all parties' perceptions. This means being a “team player”. As more people become involved, this will take multiple views and will increasingly become more difficult for the brain to digest; This also means being able to find the fallacies and misunderstandings from one’s personal perspective. Belief and attitudes are similar to perception and vision, but it is more of a psychological approach. A person exploring this in conflict may ask him or herself, “What event led me to have this opinion?,” “What happened in my childhood that caused me to view this a specific way?,” and “What are the beliefs my family raised me with?” The third factor affects which means making changes. This is a singular word that holds the power of difference. A party will wonder how this conflict will change a relationship from a single point forward. Evolving parties look at conflicts as “turning points” or pivotal times when improving a relationship. Self-empowerment and responsibility are accountability. Forgiveness requires the release of charged judgments. The inability to forgive is a reflection of oneself. Forgiveness is a warm feeling authors Toussaint and Friedman write in their work The relationship between forgiveness, gratitude, distress, and well-being: An integrative review of the literature, “…forgiveness occurs when a person lets go of emotionally backed judgments, grievances, attack thoughts and beliefs towards themselves and others so that they can perceive the goodness, worth, magnificence, innocence, love, and peace in both themselves and another person simultaneously” (p. 636). Similar to what Whittington said, a trend is apparent in this vital step and that is inner peace. The fifth aspect mentioned in forgiveness is “choice, decision, and intention,” and these are verbs. When a workplace dispute gets to the point of reconciliation, the ombudsman cannot make a party perform these actions, but rather lead them toward that path. The parties have to make a conscious choice of how they feel about said conflict, how they feel about the other person, and how they will treat the other person in the future. Number six is the ratio of duality consciousness and one’s consciousness. The relaxed conversations that an ombudsman can spark with employees will gently help open their minds to perspectives that are other than their own and the processes of thoughts the other person went through. This is a major advantage that ombuds have over HR because they can build trust with the staff, talk to employees on a deeper level, and give sound advice. The ombudsman has nothing to gain from learning about conflicts in an organization: they want to help for no other reason than they want to help. In the publication The Oxford Handbook of Conflict Management in Organization, the authors write “The organizational ombudsman is an odd duck— perhaps the only professional manager within an organization whose role does not include “representing” the organization” (Roche, Teague, and Calvin 210). Staff can talk to an ombudsman like a psychologist and similar to a psychologist obeying HIPPA laws, an ombudsman will not disclose personal information to anyone. This is a major advantage of including ombuds in workplace disputes. The final aspect is recognizing qualities. Recognizing qualities will take time because it means additional reflection. In the Oxford Handbook of Conflict Management in Organizations, the authors presented an accurate metaphor for the ombuds. They compare the objective role of the ombuds to an important member of production in Japanese Kabuki. A Kabuki is a theatrical performance that is delivered through dance and extravagant costumes and makeup. To perform such a showcase of art, these shows require Kurokos. These workers are comparable in America to “stagehands.” Stagehands are the backbone of a performance as they shift sets, move props, and assist the talent. The handbook refers to them and the ombuds as the “visible invisible.” “From the beginning the [ombuds] role has been subject to contradictory obligations and responsibilities. Noriko Tada likens the Japanese [ombuds] to a kabuki “Kuroko”…The Karuko dresses all in black. He does not show his face and is not formally part of the action, but without the Kuroko things do not work efficiently— and sometimes not at all” (Roche, Teague, and Calvin 228). The party will recognize how they would have handled the situation differently and then set intentions for how they will perform in future conflicts.The parties should also recognize the helpfulness of the ombuds and know where to immediately go when conflict begins brewing.
The most proactive step in this theory of the ombuds profession is prevention. Prevention is an umbrella term that promotes the creation of an ideal work environment that encourages thriving, respectful, appropriate, and growing relationships among employees and leaders. This environment also includes the symbiotic feeling of loyalty, both employees and companies treat each other well so that they can both profit from the work they are putting together. Employees and companies perform and emotionally feel better when they have a defined purpose. Employees and the organization gain financially from the hours they spend working, but they also gain regular human interaction, a place to be creative, and an opportunity to reach higher professional goals. The Barners write in their book, Building Better Teams : 70 Tools and Techniques for Strengthening Performance Within and Across Teams, what purpose means,
When teams try to function without a sense of long-term direction, however, the
future can appear murky and uncertain. Under such conditions, they may begin
to feel that their actions lack purpose and meaning. They have greater difficulty
sifting through competing priorities, and determining what is really important and
where they should focus their attention. The signs of a lack of direction are easy
to see. (Barner 50.)
The ombudsperson can look for the lack of purpose and how it triggers negativity in the workplace. This lack of happiness could then cause workplace bullying. By talking with employees, understanding handbooks and agreements, recognizing team goals, as well workplace observations, the ombuds will know to discuss issues before they could turn into a legal obligation. Minor qualms that are not noticed by an ombudsman can brew into heavy litigation if nothing is done about it. Utilizing Dispute Prevention Mechanisms and early intervention conflict recognition techniques will be the most important action in this sector and essentially what an ombudsman is hired to do the most. Understanding the social structure and culture of an organization will prove to be telling in a conflict and will make finding answers less difficult. Morril and Harrison publish in their writing, Ombuds Processes and Disputant Reconciliation, that these installed structures will be predictors of how conflict may look before it even arises. They say, “These social structures include such dimensions as relative social equality and access to power, degree of cultural similarity, and interdependence…” Harrison Morril 320. Depending on the nature of the two parties, it could be predisposed to a climate that makes it easier to fall into conflict than others. All relationships, even outside the workplace can be separated into two categories, continuing and ending; Either a relationship will last a lifetime or it will end and two people will head down their different paths. In the nature of continuing relationships in the workplace, these authors further simplify these continuing relationships by separating them into two more categories: multiplex and uniplex ties. Multiplex is a relationship in which two people see each other in different environments, activities, emotions, and relationships. Uniplex is when two people only see one another in the same environment. Multiplex relationships are stronger and less likely to have conflict. Harrison and Morrill write, “Disputants typically have uniplex ties, wait to pursue the grievance until the relationship has ended and future avoidance is possible, and do not wish to reconcile with the other disputant.” (Harrison and Morrill 328). How a multiplex relationship would look in the workplace could be an employee and their boss: These two people see one another in the office or other working environment every day, but perhaps they have lunch together, see each other at the grocery store or church often, they have office parties, and go on business trips to new places together. The nature of the relationship is appropriate for their profession, but they have a better understanding of one another on a human level that goes beyond getting the job done, being paid, and going home at 5pm. Uniplex relationships are that of seeing one another in the same cubicle or other working environments, not understanding the person’s background, having impersonal conversations and interactions, and never understanding one another more. The ombuds should encourage these multiplex ties and they can do so by creating team-bonding activities, celebrating holidays and birthdays, and recognizing employees’ achievements both in and outside of the office. Maureen Duffy and David C. Yamada write in their work Workplace Bullying and Mobbing in the United States [2 volumes], “The ombud’s involvement can be viewed as a part psychologist, part anthropologist, part sociologist, and part coach in that the interconnected news between the organizational and the individual perspective is not easy to delineate given the symbiotic relationship between organizations and individuals.” (Duffy & Yamada 389). The ombuds have an informal approach and will see all employees on a human level. When a company becomes a large entity, with thousands of employees, it can be hard for every employee to understand that their colleagues live complex lives that go beyond the issues at work. The informal conversations that the ombudsman has are real, caring, understanding, empathetic, tender, and personal. The ombuds is a respected employees and are highly ranked among the company, yet they are also removed to ensure trustworthiness and reliability. They can control the imbalances by having an outside view and they have loyalties that are not centralized with the highest-ranked employees in an organization. They have nothing to prove and no selfish career goals in mind, which will make them useful aspect when it is time to diffuse a problem.
Problems in the workplace cause psychological trauma and how it is diffused will help employees and leaders heal. Conflicts are usually caused by bullying, destructive behavior to oneself or others, incivility, abuse of any kind, mobbing, and aggressions, whether they be macro or micro. The most difficult scenarios ombuds will have to facilitate are those related to blatant discrimination and harassment. Anni Townend writes in her publication “Understanding and Addressing Bullying in the workplace” that some people are more likely to be victims of harassment in the workplace. Unfortunately, an ombudsman must be prepared for these issues by understanding the statistics of hate crimes, suicide rates, and discrimination against certain people,
A target group is a group of people who have been harassed and discriminated against-
for a long time by what can be called a “non-target” group, frequently a numerical majority. The main targets are clack or non-white people; women; lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex people; older people; working class, Jewish, Muslim, and Catholic. (Townend).
The statistics are not in a person’s favor for being a victim of harassment if they identify in one of those groups. Townend goes on to mention the non-targeted groups are mostly people who identify as heterosexual or straight, white people, men, or upper class. To simplify people into two groups as targets and non-targets seem inhumane, harsh, and callous, but ombuds have to be hyper-aware to know that these generalizations are backed by research, history, and systemic structures. The hatred and harassment of these groups originate from the non-target groups’ worries about the unknown. The acts of hatred in an organization will always come from a place of insecurity. The non-target groups fear change and have a different way of thinking. In attempts to keep organization ideas, processes, and values in a non-target group’s favor, they will succumb to fleeting emotions, anger, and superficial thought. Authors Premilla D’Cruz, Ernesto Noronha, and Pamela Luther-Sandvik address similar observations in their writing “Power, Subjectivity and Context in Workplace Bullying, Emotional Abuse, and Harassment: Insights from Postpositivism.” They say “Workplace bullying encompasses subtle and/or obvious negative behaviors embodying aggression, hostility, intimidation, and harm…displayed by an individual and/or group to another individual and/or group at work, privately, and/or publicly, in real and/or virtual forms.” The actions of the non-target groups are clinically dysfunctional and will cause a regression in production in the workplace. The authors created a title to describe the vast attempts of harassment that the ombuds will have to unpack psychologically called “varieties of workplace bullying.” They say that the harassment can be personal, perhaps the aggressor knows the target on a more intimate level, such as their private and family life, and they choose to aim for those fine details. The other kind of bullying is impersonal because the aggressor will attack for something that is visible or commonly known. Ombuds can prevent impersonal harassment much easier because it is not niche, unique, or complicated. An ombudsman can diffuse high conflict most effectively by building and maintaining trust. Building trust requires deliberate effort. The Oxford Handbook says,
“The first task for an organizational ombudsman is to build enough of a relationship with
each stakeholder and stakeholder group to be perceived as fair, safe, accessible, and
credible. The second task is to help all managers and employees the organization’s
conflict management system. (Roche, Teague, and Calvin 225).
In building trust, the ombuds will be able to diffuse problems with more creative options. Diffusing an issue means de-escalating, relaxing, and abating strong emotions of any kind. Strong emotions will cloud the judgment of employees and could cause regrettable actions. Diffusion can be described in these techniques that are used by successful ombuds: the ombuds will give a person respect in any emotional state that he or she is in. The ombuds will assure that they do not hold the power if they get fired, promoted, or recognized in either a positive or negative light. Delivering respect means validating a party's feelings and speaking politely with them. Next, the ombuds will practice active listening. Active listening can be done, but it can also be shown with the occasional “mhm,” “yes”, “OK,” or “I understand.” Active listening is shown by rephrasing and repeating what a party member previously said and asking the speaker if they heard what they said correctly. Active listening comes in tandem with appropriate and leading questions to further the case and create comfort. The next part of diffusion is giving resources. The ombuds will assist a party with resources by either suggesting these outlets or asking if an additional resource is a tool they wish to seek. If additional resources are not needed, the ombuds can also carefully walk through handbooks, rules, previous examples, or policies with an employee in a conversational tone. Diffusion with ombuds will also include character development; this could be referred to as “push and pull” in a conversation. The ombuds will listen and assure the employee that what they are feeling is true, but they will also probe questions that will challenge a repetitive reaction that the employee endures. In turn, the ombuds can cultivate a thought-provoking conversation that allows an employee to discover their own guilt while distracting them from the pain the other party inflicted on them. The ombuds are a sounding board that will be there at every step via shuttle diplomacy. When it comes time for the opposing parties to communicate about an issue, each party could have statements, emails, and forms reviewed by the ombuds before they send to the other party. Outside of a specific conflict, the ombuds will do procedures to allow management to perform proactively as well. One of these duties is routine meetings with leaders in the organization. The ombuds could have a schedule or have regular unscheduled meetings disclosing their observations while upholding confidentiality. The ombuds could also write an annual or biannual report describing the predictable patterns of conflict. Beyond the reporting, the ombuds can also make suggestions. Suggestions from ombuds hold a lot of value because they have the inside perspective that no one else is to be held responsible within a company. The ombuds could introduce training that would be the most relevant to private issues among the staff, recommend a change or new policy in employee handbooks, or advice for a new conflict resolution procedure without naming a specific person. There also lies meaning in the duties of what an ombud does not do. By not performing certain tasks, the ombuds can calm staff because they do not hold any power in regard to punishments. The ombuds will never have a formal investigation and will not testify in court unless there is a threat to one’s or another person’s well-being. The ombuds will also not keep a record of any files, notes, or anecdotes in a conflict. All notes and recordings by the ombuds are destroyed. Another action ombuds will not do is take a side in a conflict. The ombuds serving as a comforting presence take off the edge of triggering emotions.
There is no denying that every organization has an uneven balance of power. The uneven distribution of power is necessary because organizations need leaders in order to keep groups on track. One employee having more power than another is not a problem, and power only becomes a problem when it is misused, abused, and negatively charged. Christian Muntean writes in his publication Conflict and Leadership: How to Harness the Power of Conflict to Create Better Leaders and Build Thriving Teams, the basic definition of conflict and where it originates from, “A serious disagreement or argument, typically a protracted one. A prolonged armed struggle. [or] An incompatibility between two or more opinions, principles, or interests.” Notice how none of these definitions mention power or its imbalance. Muntean mentions that when conflict is presented to people in an organization, they have options. Power allows one party to have fewer or more options than the other. These options are navigated through resources, connections, and money. As roles shift, and employees move in their power rankings, problems are more likely to arise as individuals settle into their new work identities. The first option is to escape or avoid conflict. A lower-ranked employee may decide the conflict at work is not important to their life, so he or she may decide to leave the job because they feel that is the only option for them. Companies with high turnover rates should notice patterns with new hires and the ombuds can help specify what would need to change. A person that is a leader, in the same situation, may pretend that this problem is not worth fitting into their busy work schedule, they could meet with other leaders and all agree to avoid it, or they could pretend that they never noticed the problem. The ombuds should hold the leader accountable by pointing this choice out. The next option is to face the conflict. Depending on the power of the person involved, they may feel they could “win” in a conflict. A person in power, once again has more options, and they could urge the termination of a lower-ranked employee, they could move jobs to a different location, or could move an employee to a role that they would not cross paths with. Athena ombuds should encourage a face-to-face conversation that will put the leader and the employee on the same lever for a brief moment. Conflicts arise not because of the power, but because each party feels something is important to him or her, and as a person moves higher in a company their priorities are bound to change. Authors D’Cruz, Noronha, and Luther-Sandvik also discussed power rankings in their writing on dysfunctional workplaces, “Organizational interventions could also help to rectify the situation and empower targets, in the process negating the position of the bully. In contrast, organizational interventions that side with the perpetrator augment the latter's said power, exacerbating the targets’ defencelessness.” Wise and seasoned ombuds will factor the imbalance of power into their neutrality. The ombuds will make up for less power in the process of facilitating an issue. This could look like having extra meetings with someone who is in less power, factoring the lack of resources in the decision-making process for the less powerful, and taking fewer initiatives when assisting the more powerful party.
Ultimately, forgiveness, prevention, diffusion, and the understanding of power rankings are the main tools that ombuds and a company need in order to avoid heavy, expensive, and taxing litigations. The ombuds process protects peace, peoples’ identities, and peoples’ deepest fears that they are unable to forget when they arrive at their place of employment. The informal process of ombuds will augment any organization positively, cultivate lasting multiplexual connections, and improve the quality of lives for both powerful and powerless employees. The ombuds process not only saves money, but it also will challenge people in genuine ways. Employees can take lessons that they learn from conflict at work and apply to their lives. The ombuds will give grace in assisting people to become teachable, open-minded, caring, and wholesome. Research, real-world examples, and patterns are not unique to a single organization and having a neutral, respected, and seasoned ombudsman is an investment for a thriving work culture. The forgiveness an ombud teaches will allow employees to be patient with one another. The diffusion techniques and tools that the ombuds show will be the ultimate example of how to avoid regrettable fleeting emotions. Prevention makes room for planning ahead, living in the moment, and excitement for future endeavors. The ombuds are far more than a financial obligation because it is enlightening, enriching, and key-contributor to unity and respect to people that have the same goal in mind.
Works Cited
Barner, Robert, et al. Building Better Teams : 70 Tools and Techniques for Strengthening Performance Within and Across Teams, Center for Creative Leadership, 2012. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/pepperdine/detail.action?docID=827142.
Friedman, P. H., & Toussaint, L. L. (2006b). The relationship between forgiveness, gratitude, distress, and well-being: An integrative review of the literature. The International Journal of Healing and Caring, 6, 1-1
Harrison, Tyler, and Calvin Morrill. “Ombuds Processes and Disputant Reconciliation.” Journal of Applied Communication Research, vol. 32, no. 4, 2004, pp. 318–342., https://doi.org/10.1080/0090988042000276005.
(Edelman, Erlanger, & Lande, 1993; Shapiro & Kolb, 1994).
(Conley & O’Barr, 1990)
Moore 1986
While current statistics on ombuds are difficult to find, Rowe (1993a) estimates that ombuds exist in at least 150 universities, 500 large corporations, and that all 50 states have a long-term care ombudsman
Krent, Harold J. “Federal Agency Ombuds: The Costs, Benefits, and Countenance of Confidentiality.” Administrative Law Review, vol. 52, no. 1, 2000, pp. 17–61.
Krent, Harold J. “Federal Agency Ombuds: The Costs, Benefits, and Countenance of Confidentiality.” Administrative Law Review, vol. 52, no. 1, 2000, pp. 17–61.
Townend, Anni. “Understanding and Addressing Bullying in the Workplace.” Industrial and Commercial Training, vol. 40, no. 5, 2008, pp. 270–273., https://doi.org/10.1108/00197850810886522.
Ulrich, Zachary P. “A Role for Ombuds in Embedded Corporate Social Responsibility Processes?” Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 6, no. 4, 2013, pp. 358–360., https://doi.org/10.1111/iops.12067.
Whittington, Brandon L. “An Examination of Forgiveness Attitudes, Assertiveness and Self-Esteem in Relationships between Forgiveness, Relational Abuse, and Well-Being.” University of Missouri--St. Louis, University of Missouri--St. Louis, 2015.
Conflict management in organizations